How has affirmative action influenced hiring practices?

Affirmative action has increased the overall number of women and minority hires throughout the economy. While there has been some gain in entry level and mid-management levels of traditionally male-dominated fields, top levels (e.g., CEO at Fortune 500 companies) do not reflect much percentage improvement in access by females and minorities. The bulk of hiring increase has been in entry-level to mid-management job hires, especially in service-oriented industries and retail industries.